How does the computer figure this out? There must be a certain math involved, no?
This was not taught in any school I ever attended.
Vector data typically consists of:
You are showing a table. Taking a guess:
First things:
How does it do it? Geoprocessing. Coordinate Systems, geometry-based calculations. Possibly projections and datum transformations. It's not likely to be clean math that can be shown in a table. e.g. here's a couple of tools:
https://pro.arcgis.com/en/pro-app/3.1/tool-reference/analysis/spatial-join.htm
https://pro.arcgis.com/en/pro-app/3.1/tool-reference/analysis/intersect.htm