I’m publishing a map image service from ArcGIS Pro 3.6.1 to an ArcGIS Enterprise 11.5 portal and running into an issue where the layer publishes successfully but shows up empty. I also tried publishing in an older version of ArcGIS Pro, and got the same results.
The data is coming from an SDE feature class. In ArcGIS Pro, I took a single layer and duplicated it three times, applying a different definition query to each copy based on ownership. When I publish the map image service with these queried layers, the service completes without any obvious errors, but in Portal the layer does not draw, appears empty, and there is no Data tab available. When I open the online Map Viewer, I get this error:

If I publish the same layer without any definition queries, it works normally. The issue only happens when I use multiple copies of the same layer with different queries.
This is something that we have done in the past on previous Enterprise versions, 10.9 & 11.1. Has anyone run into this issue before, and is there a recommended approach for publishing layers with multiple queries?